The information provided is for a leaflet written to the NHS, about the process that family members may go through during adolescence and adulthood. How neurological changes can affect an adolescent's view of themselves and what crises may emerge during adulthood, including any key events that may be experienced during adulthood. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original EssayA structural change in the brain during adolescence occurs when synapses transmit neurotransmitters or "chemicals" to nerve cell receptors, which then pass to other nerve cells. This is especially important for adolescents because they experience a surge of synapses (Chechik, Meilijson, and Ruppin 1759). During adolescence, the typical adolescent brain undergoes synaptic pruning, which is when the brain removes synapses and nerve cells that are not being used (Fisher, 2017). Applying it to teenagers could mean taking up a hobby or learning a new language but not practicing it after a long period of time and this is where synaptic pruning occurs. The two brain regions linked to change during adolescence are the prefrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens. . The prefrontal cortex is a part of the frontal lobe and is involved in many higher cognitive functions such as judgment and impulse and emotional control. The nucleus accumbens is the area of ​​the brain that seeks pleasure and reward. This region of the brain is also responsible for risk taking (Edmonds, 2015). Greater sensitivity to the limbic system has been linked to adolescents' feelings of embarrassment. Teenage girls are constantly trying to live up to the unrealistic beauty standards that society places on them, from trying to look like the prettiest model on the cover of their favorite magazine to changing their appearance on social media to impress others. Social media “influencers” now have their own brands of products to make teens believe that if they buy them, maybe they will look like that person. Unrealistic beauty standards have led to both girls and boys having low self-esteem and depression which then leads to more serious problems such as eating disorders, dieting, and anxiety (Socialworkers.org, 2001). Teenagers constantly feel uncomfortable; Teenage girls feel uncomfortable comparing their bodies to others, but teen boys use other people to develop their strengths and self-esteem. Self-esteem is caused by many factors such as relationships, thoughts and experiences. One of the most common factors is puberty and development. During puberty, the body goes through many changes; the appearance of pimples, hair growth, and growth spurts can affect how teens perceive themselves. Not all bodies develop in the same way or at the same time, so if a teenager starts later or earlier than their peers, they may feel like they don't fit in with society or their friend group. School and family are another factor, parents can make judgments towards a teenager and this could be considered negative as it influences how teenagers see themselves. Other students at school may say harmful things and make fun of each other, which contributes to self-image (Trinh, 2013). Teenagers are more likely to take risks and be careless due to the development of their hormones. Although the nucleus accumbens isresponsible for risk taking, testosterone plays a role in risk taking. Testosterone is a sex hormone that is mostly common in males, during puberty testosterone is responsible for growth spurts, deeper voice, growth of facial and body hair, muscle development and increased sexual desire. This is important since male adolescents are more interested in sex than females. The higher the amount of testosterone, the more likely a person is to take risks (Anawalt and Matsumoto, 2014). That said, although testosterone is primarily related to men, it can be found in the body of females too, but not as much as males. The female sex hormone is called estrogen and is responsible for starting the menstrual cycle, accumulating fat in the hips and thighs, and speeding up the metabolism. A testosterone imbalance can be found in women, this could lead to increased sexual desire, as in men. This may be linked to the fact that adolescent women have unprotected sex which leads to teenage pregnancies (Munoz, 2013). Teens are more likely to engage in risky behaviors due to sex hormones that develop during puberty. Male adolescents have more testosterone, which links to risky behavior: the more testosterone the more likely the person is to take risks. However, this can also be found in females. Peper carried out a test to analyze risky behavior in both sexes; it was done by having participants press a button that would inflate a balloon. Each time the balloon inflated, participants earned money. Participants had the option to “cash out” and walk away with the money they earned or they could continue to inflate the balloon to get more money. If the balloon was inflated to the maximum possible level, it would explode and the participants would lose the money they earned. Peper and his team found that the amount of money earned and balloon explosions depended on the participants' testosterone levels. They found that boys and girls with higher testosterone levels led to riskier behavior, but male participants tended to blow up more balloons while female participants earned larger amounts of money. “In boys, a higher level of testosterone can lead to greater sensation seeking – the thrill of pumping the balloon further. In girls, however, a higher testosterone level may lead to more beneficial risk-taking in the long term. “Says Peper (Munoz, 2013). Oxytocin is another hormone that can influence behavior in adolescence. Oxytocin is also known as the bonding hormone that enables the production of lactation in females, it also influences maternal behaviors and group bonding (MacGill, 2015). Oxytocin increases positive in-group attitudes, but can be the cause of negative feelings towards the out-group. People are less likely to accept members of other ethnicities and foreigners, or a person who doesn't like whatever the group does; like sports teams. Oxytocin is responsible for creating prejudicial opinions towards the outgroup that can lead to violence (De Dreu et al., 2011). A test was conducted where participants could dishonestly report their performance for the benefit of their in-group. The experiment allowed individuals to lie anonymously for the benefit of their groups. This showed that healthy males who received oxytocin lied more for their own benefitgroup, causing dishonesty towards the other group. The effects of this test were that lying would have consequences within each group, shaping distrust, and that collaboration can turn into corruption (Shalvi and De Dreu, 2014). Serotonin is another hormone that may be linked to adolescents. Regulates anxiety and mood; It is responsible for controlling sleep and wakefulness. Due to the development of serotonin, adolescents are more likely to stay up late at night and have difficulty waking up in the morning, which is commonly attributed to the fact that adolescents play video games late at night and are unable to concentrate on schoolwork during the day. Morning. Most teens produce too much or too little serotonin, when teens are exposed to light it causes an increase in serotonin, which may be linked to playing video games late at night or being on the phone texting. Stress causes serotonin levels to decrease, which causes teens to wake up moody. Serotonin is twice as common in girls than in boys. Too much serotonin can act like a drug, making people feel happy. This can be dangerous as people want to overdose on serotonin which can cause serotonin syndrome if used together with other drugs (Nielsen, 2013). There are two theories that will be analyzed in this essay, Freud's theory and Kohlberg's; both theories concern the topic of morality. Freud theorized that the mind is divided into three parts; The ID that is pleasure-oriented and focuses on what feels good in that moment, regardless of the consequences. The Superego, which focuses on what is the right thing to do, based on the environment around it: Freud believed that this is where morality was found. And the Ego, which is the decision-making component, operates on what we can realistically do in the world, attempting to satisfy both the ID and the Superego (Castelloe, 2013). In 1904, Hall hypothesized storm and stress in adolescence, which refers to the decrease in self-control in adolescents and the increase in sensitivity in adolescents to various stimuli around them. The three ways in which a teenager might display stormy and stressful behavior could be among three ways; conflict with parents, mood disorders and risky behaviors. Bandura (1963) criticized Hall's hypothesis by demonstrating that most adolescents do not view their adolescence as “stormy.” Bandura said the mass media rarely presented teenagers as anything other than stormy ones, which is unrealistic. He concluded that expecting the adolescent to be stormy often becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy (Roundy, 2017). Hollenstein and Lougheed (2013) developed their own 4T approach which is similar to Hall's hypothesis. The 4Ts are included; Typicality is when an adolescent displays problematic behavior. With new technology, researchers can focus on individual differences. Temperament, when a child's temperament changes dramatically at different times in his or her life. Transactions, between biological and mental impacts on our body; occur primarily during stress, environment, and times, not all adolescents will develop at the same rate (Hollenstein, T., & Lougheed, JP2013). In 1963, Kohlberg developed a series of moral dilemmas that typically involved a choice between two conclusions, both of which were considered generally unacceptable by society. Which included three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Each level is divided into two phases. Kohlberg's aim was to investigate how people got to their point ofreasoning. The pre-conventional level has two guided phases; obedience and punishment driven and guided by self-interest. The first stage focuses on the child's desire to obey the rules and what he is told to avoid punishment, while the second stage focuses on the expression of "what's in it for me?" meaning that a child's behavior is defined by what he believes is in his best interest, whether he will receive a reward for his behavior. The conventional level has two phases, but in Kohlberg's theory they are recognized as phases three and four. The third stage is when children seek the approval of others, acting to avoid disapproval, behaving well, and being kind to others. Stage four is when a child accepts the rules given by parents as they see that obeying the rules is normal and what they "should" do is considered important. This is where moral development begins. The Post-Conventional level is the child's sense of morality, principles and values. Children begin to realize that if they disobey the rules, their actions will have consequences. 10%-15% of adults progress beyond stage 4 (Kohlberg, 1975; Colby et al, 1983). Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's theory was androcentric, meaning that Kohlberg primarily focused on male participants from which to collect data. Kohlberg originally used male participants who came from a white, middle-class background, and people often demonstrated inconsistency in their moral reasoning. In dilemmas involving drinking, driving, and business, people use self-interest as moral judgment (Parke, Gauvain, & Schmuckler, 2010). There are five stages in Erikson's theory involving adulthood. Stage 5 is identity versus role confusion which is the adolescence stage (ages 12 to 18). During this stage, adolescents and pre-adolescents begin to find a sense of self-image and personal identity. A person may have difficulty finding their identity, relating to “fitting in” or feeling accepted. At this stage a person is developing a sense of morality. Some people may feel shunned from responsibility; this may also include role confusion. Stage 6 is Intimacy and Solidarity versus Isolation – Love or young adult stage (18-35). During this phase a person will begin to seek love and companionship, some may settle down and start their own family. In recent years it seems that this phase has been pushed further back due to the development of careers. If this phase is unsuccessful, people may begin to isolate themselves, avoiding marriage and having long-term friends. Stage 7 is that of the middle-aged adult (35-55/65). People who are in this stage of their life tend to give top priority to career and work as it is very important to support their family. Erikson's idea of ​​this stage is that people will attempt to produce something that will improve society. During this stage, major life changes can occur, such as children leaving the family. Some people may struggle with this, losing their sense of purpose. Stage 8, the last stage in Erikson's theory is Integrity versus Despair or Late Adulthood (55/65 – Death). At this stage, Erikson believed that people prepare for the middle adulthood stage and that this last stage involves an individual reflecting on their life, whether they have contributed to society in a positive way, and whether they have fulfilled their life. However, some people may struggle with the idea of ​​death and feel as if they are not contributing to society in the best way possible and begin to wonder if life hadreally a purpose and whether it was worth it (Erikson, 1972). of Erikson's theory is that many people find the theory recognizable by referring to its phases. Although Erikson is vague about the causes of the development of his stages, this does not apply to everyone as different cultures have a huge influence on how each person's life is planned. Erikson does not explain why emotional development occurs in the development of these stages and does not explain how the outcome of each stage may affect a person later in life (McLeod, 2013). Within each phase of Erikson's theory lie key relationships and roles. linked to the stages of adulthood. Stage 5, as we know it as the adolescence stage, has some roles and relationships; the important ones are peer groups, external groups or friends, those with whom they have things in common and those with whom they don't. Erikson identified that adolescents gain a sense of “who they are” and are uncertain about the roles they play currently and in the future. Stage 6 or the young adult stage will develop long-term friendships and more committed sexual relationships. However, at this stage, there is also emphasis on the workplace, on the people who have relationships with colleagues, on the choice or not to cooperate and compete with them. This is the only step in identifying a relationship where there is competition, but it does not indicate whether it is healthy or unhealthy competition. Stage 7, the middle-aged adult, will now be a parent and have a long-term career, putting family and work as top priorities. Many people have children in their 20s and 30s. Erikson does not emphasize the relationship the individual has with their children until age 40, which is not exactly valid since when people have children later or a teenage pregnancy occurs, Erikson's theory is not always reliable. Stage 8 or late adulthood is where we focus on people's lives as a whole and the impact they have had on society. Erikson does not explain what happens and how people develop if these relationships are not obtained. Some of the relationships in the stages may not apply to everyone, what if some women cannot have children or simply choose not to?A? What would happen if same-sex couples chose not to adopt their children and became parents? (Erikson, 1972) Adolescents are more capable of forming strong attachments and are more capable of resolving conflicts and forming strong attachments in adulthood (Marcia, 1966). During adulthood, there are many key events that can occur during this time. The events that occur are as follows; unemployment, retirement, marriage, divorce and parenthood. Unemployment can have a detrimental effect on a person, both physically and psychologically. Depression is determined by a psychological effect: the longer term it was, the greater the probability of it developing (Argyle, 1972). Martin Seligman conducted two experiments with dogs to investigate what he called “learned helplessness,” which is a state of persistent pain because people believe they are unable to avoid or stop the pain. During his first experiment, dogs were placed in a harness. One dog was left alone while two others were placed together: their harnesses gave them electric shocks. A dog in the second group managed to press a level to prevent the harnesses from causing shocks; the other dog would still receive the shocks. During his second experiment, the dogs were then placed separately in a box. The dogs were again given electric shocks. However, they managed to stop them by jumping over a wall and pressing a lever (Maier et al, 1995). The experiment, 2017).