Three General Types of Organizational Culture: Constructive, Passive-Defensive, Aggressive-Defensive: The Organizational Culture Inventory measures 12 sets of normative beliefs or shared behavioral expectations associated with three general types of cultures, Constructive , Passive-defensive and aggressive-defensive cultures. Constructive cultures, in which members are encouraged to interact with others and approach tasks in ways that will help them meet their higher-order satisfaction needs, are characterized by achievement, self-actualization, and humanistic encouragement. and affiliative norms. Constructive styles strongly associated with satisfaction and low stress (Cooke & Szumal, 1993). Achievement: pursuing a standard of excellence. Self-actualization: thinking uniquely and independently. Humanistic encouragement: helping others grow and develop .  Affiliation: dealing with others in a friendly manner. Passive-defensive cultures, in which members believe they should interact with people in ways that do not threaten their safety, are characterized by Approving, Conventional, Dependent, and Avoidant norms. Passive-defensive styles associated with dissatisfaction and high stress (Cooke & Szumal, 1993). Approving: getting along with others Conventional: always following policies and practices. Dependent: pleasing those in positions of authority Avoidance: waiting for others to make him act first Aggressive-defensive cultures, in which members are expected to approach tasks forcefully to protect their status and safety, are characterized by norms of opposition, power, competition and perfectionism. Aggressive-Defensive styles weakly correlated with certain measures of dissatisfaction and stress (Cooke & Szumal, 199...... middle of paper...... No.2, March-April 1995. H. Yamashita, 2000, Healthy Culture and Unhealthy Culture. Athenaeum Press, Ltd., Gateshead, Tyne & Wear Pp1-42.V., Culture and Related Business Realities: Text, Cases and Readings on Entry, Establishment and Organizational Change , Inc., Homewood, Illinois, Pp32-46.JW Fairfield-Sonn, 2001, Corporate Culture and Quality Organization, Westport, Connecticut, pp35-54 Source from Internet: http://www.pfdf .org/leaderbooks/. l2l/spring97/kelleher.htmlhttp://www.ourtowncenter.com/nuggets/nuggets.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/kcet/chasingthesun/innovators/hkelleher.htmlhttp://www.geocities .com/woodsonterrace/ assoc.htmlhttp://www.fed.org/onlinemag/sep98/briefcase.htmlhttp://www.hbcollege.com/management/professors/culture_prof.htmhttp://www.auxillium.com/culture .shtml